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Denari
The Denari language (Ferse-va Denari''' / ''فهرسه'ڤا دهناری) is a language of the hormagi-legana family, spoken by denari, an alien people of the planet Ēvèsh (world, in Denari). It is a nominative-accusative language, of SVO structure, but with some freedoms for SOV sentences. with highly declined nouns (it has nine grammatical cases), and highly conjugated verbs. Its main speakers are the Denari, it is spoken mainly in Denar, officially Denari Republic (Kermèshvâna-va Denari / ''کهرمهٔشڤآنا'ڤا دهناری). The denari are monotheists, their religion is nishraism, and they accredit in a single goddess called Nishra (literally ''god in denari). Their religion encourages capitalism and the pursuit of profit, whose purpose is in the commerce practiced by the Denaris. Denari is used as lingua franca in much of the planet Ēvèsh, having influenced many languages. Phonology Consonants The denari is comparatively little complex as to the number and types of consonants. Each consonant has its own individual letter, except for the consonants r and ɾ, which are represented by the same letter R (ر in Perso-Arabic), and the phonemes l and ɫ, which are represented by the same letter L (ل in Perso-Arabic). * The Denari only has a consonant with an emphatic version, the sˤ, which is only used between two vowels, and is represented in the Arabic alphabet by the letter ص, indicating an emphatic son near to the z phoneme. A similar or similar phenomenon occurs in the Portuguese language, in which the letter S acquires the sound of z between vowels. * The phonemes r and ɾ are represented by the same letter R (ر in Perso-Arabic). Their uses vary from word to word, syllable to syllable and dialect to dialect, but usually the phoneme ɾ is often used more. * The phonemes l and ɫ are represented by the same letter L (ل in Perso-Arabic). The letter L represents the phoneme l when it precedes a vowel on the same syllable, and represents the phoneme ɫ when occur after a vowel on the same syllable. But in some dialects the L acquires the sound of l same at the end of the syllable after and vowel. * In denari, nasal sounds (n and m) are only preceded, on the same syllable, by closed vowels (i and u), by close mid vowels (e and o), or by open back vowel (ɒ). Vowels The Denari has eight vowels, being two closed vowels (i and u), and six open vowels, divided in three acute vowels (a, ɛ and ɔ) and three grave vowels (ɒ, e, o). Each vowel has its own letter, differentiating the open front vowels from the open back vowels. This prevents words, which would be orthographically the same (varying only in the opening of the vowel), to be confused in the pronunciation. Example: * Vos / ڤوس - /vos/ - Number '''''two in English. * Vòs / ڤۏس - /vɔs/ - Uncle in English. In Denari, the closed vowels i and u and the semi-vowels j and w are respectively represented by the same letters, I / ی in the case of the phonemes i and j, and U / ؤ in the case of the phonemes u and w. This is because in Denari, sounds j and w are little used, used only in diphthongs, and, most of the time, optionally. The use of the sounds j and w in diphthongs is only compulsory when it is a rising diphthong (semi-vowel + vowel) antecedent of vowel or when the decreasing diphthong (vowel + semi-vowel). Examples: * The word iad / یاد, which means all in denari, can be pronounced both as jad and as iˈad. This is because, being a rising diphthong at the beginning of the word, there is no specific pronunciation rule. * The word naia / نایا, woman in denari, is pronounced ˈna.ja. In this case, the i would only be pronounced in the place of j if there was a tonic accent on the I, as occurs in the word aíad / ایَاد, stone in denari. * The word aonai / اونای (declension in the accusative case of the word aoní / اونیَ, meaning person ''or man''), is pronounced aoˈnaj, that is because there is a decreasing diphthong. The i would be pronounced in place of j if there was a tonic accent, which would indicate that there is no diphthong. Long Vowels All denari vowels have their long versions, which are represented by the following forms: * In the Latin alphabet, by the addition of a macrón (ˉ) above the letter. * In the Arabic alphabet, by the addition of a diacritic (ـِ) below the letter. When the vowel is long, and precedes another vowel or semi-vowel, a diphthong will not be form, and it will be a hiatus. When the vowel is long but succeed another vowel or semi-vowel, a diphthong may form depending on the accent and diphthong formation rules. Diphthongs In denari, there are two categories of diphthongs: rising (semi-vowel + vowel) and falling diphthongs (vowel + semi-vowel or vowel + vowel). Rising Diphthongs: There are no rising diphthongs beginning in semi-vowel and ending in closed vowel (/ji/, /ju/, /wu/, /wi/) in Denari. Falling Diphthongs: Denari doesn't have falling diphthongs terminated in A, Â, È and Ò. Hiatus A hiatus occurs when two adjacent vowels are in different syllables, having non-continuous sound. A hiatus can be formed with all vowels, and will be orthographically identified by various rules of acentuantion and location of the vowel. * When the vowel is a long vowel, it will always form a hiatus with the next vowel. Example: Ahrāe / احراِه - ahˈraːe. * When the two consecutive vowels (except when the second vowel is i or u, because they have its own rules) are succeded by the stresseded syllable of the word, they will always form a hiatus, so there will be no graphical accentuation. Example: In the word Aoní /''' '''اونیَ - a.oˈni, the letter O isn't accentuated, because a gap will always form when two vowels are succeeded by the stressed syllable ˈni. * When the second vowel of two consecutive vowels is i or u, the letters I and U will always be accentuated to identify the sounds of i and u, not the sounds of j and w in their respective letters, and to indicate that the syllable in which these vowels are always the stressed syllable of the word. Exemple: In the words Zhaís (ژایَس) / Zhaír (ژایَر) -''' ʒaˈis / ʒaˈiɾ, meaning the adjective bad, in the masculine and feminine forms, the letter I is accentuated, to indicate the hiatus, the sound of i and not j, and the stresseds sylables of the words ˈis and ˈiɾ, because when there is a hiatus and the second vowel is i or u, they will always be in the stressed syllable. * There will always be hiatus when there is vowel succeded by A, Â, È and O, and not accentuated, except when one of the vowels is stressed and is accentuated according to the accentuation rules. Ex: '''Maèk / ماهٔک - maˈɛk, meaning drink. * When there are three consecutive vowels letters in a word, there may be two situations: In the first situation, the first letter is a vowel, the second is a semi-vowel (j and w) and the third is another vowel. In this case, the first and second letters form a hiatus, and the second and third letters form a growing diphthong. Ex: Naia / نایا -''' ˈna.ja, meaning woman. In the '''second situation, the first letter is a vowel, the second is a semi-vowel and the third is a vowel, and the first two letters form a diphthong, with the last two forming a hiatus. In this case, the last vowel will always be accentuated to indicate the hiatus and the fact that it will also be in the stressed syllable of the word. Ex: Paiór / پایۏَر - pajˈɔɾ, meaning plant. Optional Hiatus Words that begin or with two consecutive vowels lerters may have optional gaps, in which, if there is no accent that indicates the tone, and hence the occurrence of the hiatus, the two letters can be pronounced both as hiatus and diphthong. Exemples: * The word iad / یاد, which means all in denari, can be pronounced both as jad and as iˈad. This is because, being a rising diphthong at the beginning of the word, there is no specific pronunciation rule. Alphabet Denari has its own alphabet, but in this text the words will be written in the Latin alphabet and in a modified Perso-Arabic alphabet (because they are the ones that best represent the Denari phonemes). * The "Ss", (س''' in Perso-Arabic alphabet), is used between two vowels, to represent the phoneme s. * The '''ص '''is written as S in the Latin alphabet, but has a sound of sˤ or z when between two vowels. It is not used elsewhere, only between two vowels or after a vowel on the same syllable, succeeded by a consonant on a different syllable, to represent the sound of sˤ or z. Pronouns Pronouns in the '''Denari language are simple when compared to other languages. The denari has one pronoun for each person of the discourse, in the singular and in the plural. In the first person, we have, in the nominative case, from which the pronouns in the other cases are derived, the pronouns ast / است (first person singular) and ahrā / احراِ (first person plural). In the second person, we have, in the nominative case, the pronouns nor / نور (second person singular) and avut / اڤؤت (second person plural). Denari does not have the T - V distinction, and the use of pronouns does not depend on the relationship between the speakers or speech formality, but rather whether the speaker is speaking with one or more interlocutors. Both are used in both formal and informal speech, and اڤؤت / avut is as used as نور / nor, depending on the number of the interlocutor. In the third person, pronouns differ in numbers as well as in gender. The denari has, in the third person singular the pronouns sas / ساس (he) and sar / سار (she) in the nominative case. The denari has no neutral gender, so there is no neutral pronoun. It also has no third-person pronoun for inanimate or non-human objects. As in the Romance languages, the masculine and feminine pronouns of the third person plural are the plural of the third-person pronouns of the singular, in the case sasân / ساصآن (they masculine) and sarân / سارآن (they feminine) in the nominative case. Denari, except in the nominative case, has a reflexive pronoun for the third person, being vet / ڤهت in the accusative case. The Denari has nominative pronouns (indicating subject), accusative (indicating object), dative (indicating the sufferer of an action), comitative (indicating company), ablative (indicating from the pronoun), possessive (indicating possessiveness), causative pronoun (the agent of an action in the passive voice), demonstrative, indefinite, relative and interrogative pronouns. Nominative Pronouns Nominative pronouns indicate the pronoun as subject of the sentence. Denari is a pronoun-droping language, that is, the nominative pronoun can be concealed because the verb conjugates according to the subject and indicate the subject. Since the Denari is an SVO language, the nominative pronoun always appears in front of the verb at the beginning of the sentence. Exemples: * Ast''' vâ as kōbèki-va māsas / ''است ڤآ اس کوِبهٔکی'ڤا ماِصاس (I''' have a great house) * ''Ahrā''' lân lândasiân / ''احراِ لآن لآنداصیآن (We are brothers) * ''Nor alanat alèli / ''نور الانات الهٔلی (You read the book) * ''Avut maèdânt iadi / ''اڤؤت ماهٔدآنت یادی (You drank all) * ''Sas i ânsa cepasi / ''ساس ی آنسا ثهپاصی (He is my husband) * ''Sar i as naiai-va shīr / ''سار ی اس نایای'ڤا شیِر (She is a tall woman) * ''Sasân in vòvisiân / ''ساصآن ین ڤۏڤیصیآن (They are cousins) * ''Sarân serin kōbèkda kaona / ''سارآن سهرین کوِبهٔکدا کاونا (They will go to father's house) Acusative Pronouns The accusative pronouns indicate the pronoun as direct object. Despite the fact that Denari is normally an SVO language, in the case of the accusative pronouns, they may precede the verb, after the subject, forming an SOV sentence. The denari has the reflexive accusative pronoun of third person vet / ڤهت, which indicates that the subject also suffers the action. It is used to refer both to the third person masculine and feminine subject in the singular as in the plural. The accusative pronouns are similar to the nominative pronouns, and the only difference is the substitution of the last vowel of the nominative pronouns by the letter E''' '''/ ه'. The only accusative pronouns that differ most from the nominative pronouns are ''esm / هسم and ne / نه, but which maintain similarities with ast / است and nor / نور. Even so, in these two pronouns, in parallel with their nominative correspondents, there was the replacement of their vowels by '''E /''' '''ه. Exemples (underlined null subject in English): * Sar '''esm' mararí / سار 'هسم''' ماراریَ (She will love me) * Sar maraní '''ahrē' / سار مارانیَ 'احرهِ''' (She loves us) * ''Ne ceradí ' '/ ''نه ثهرادیَ ' '(He stole you) * Lávân laedí '''avet' / لاَڤآن لاهدیَ 'اڤهت (The money conquered '''you) * Vavt zamaní '''vet' l'tâna / ڤاڤت زامانیَ 'ڤهت''' لعتآنا (The fire feeds himself of air) *''Nas nervas lèrí ses /'' ناس نهرڤاس لهٔریَ سهس (Your son will see him) *''Ser vergad /'' سهر ڤهرگاد (I listened her) *''Nânvar sesân līvarí /'' نآنڤار سهصآن لیِڤاریَ (The sister will help them) *''Ânra peshvarân lèrin serân /'' آنرا پهشڤارآن لهٔرین سهرآن (My daughters will see them) Dative Pronouns The dative pronouns indicate the pronoun as indirect object, that is, the one who is the recipient of the action. As with accusative pronouns, a sentence with a dative pronoun can be SOV. There are also two ways to have a SVO phrase with a dative pronoun. In the first, the dative pronoun comes after the direct object of the sentence. In the second form, the dative pronoun precedes the direct object. Dative pronouns are similar to nominative pronouns. Most of the time, the last consonant of the nominative pronouns is subsituted by the letter D''' '''/ د, and in others the letter D / د is added after the last letter. Also, when combined with some nominative pronouns, the last vowel in some dative pronouns is replaced by A / ا. Exemples: * Sas '''asd' visadar alèli '' / ساس اسد ڤیصادار الهٔلی (He give the book to me / He give me the book) * ''Ahnār nânvar acirat '''ahrād kot ''/ احناِر نآنڤار اثیرات 'احراِد''' کوت (Our sister will tell something to us) *''Mēso vei làndas'' kadin kōbèki '''nad' / مهِصو ڤهی لآَنداس کالآنا کوِبهٔکی 'ناد''' (The man and the brother made the house to you) *''Pradadí alaio avād'' / پرادادیَ الایو اڤاِد (He kept reading to you) *''Sar pradadí alaio vēd'' / سار پرادادیَ الایو ڤهِد (She kept reading to herself) *''Visar sasd ar ehrâni '' / ڤیصار ساسد ار هحرآنی (I will give him a present) *''Dânvarân sedin sard'' / دآنڤارآن سهدین سارد (The friends went to her) *''Sarân visanin mardi sasând'' / سارآن ڤیصانین ماردی ساصآند (They give love to them) *''Sasân visanin sarând mardi '' / ساصآن ڤیصانین سارآند ماردی (They give love to them) Comitative Pronouns Comitative pronouns indicate the pronoun as company of the subject. The comitative pronoun, unlike the accusative and dative pronouns, will always come after the verb, forming an SVO order, even though there is an accusative or dative pronoun assuming a SOV order in the same sentence. It will always come after the object of the sentence, often times being a word in the locative case. In denari there isn't order with someone in one place, but the order in a place with someone. Even if the object, when it is a dative or accusative pronoun, is before the verb, the comitative pronoun continues after the verb. The comitative pronoun, in contrast to the nominative pronoun, differs by adding K / ک or Kā(â) / (کاِ(آ in front of the pronoun (in the case of the third person by substituting S / س for K / ک, and by replacing the vowel O / و with E''' '''/ ه''' in the second person singular. Exemples: * ''Sas dē kōbèkven '''kast'' / ساس دهِ کوِبهٔکڤهن کاست (He is with me in the house) * Maète '''kahrā' / ماهٔته 'کاحراِ''' (Drink with us) * Drarân '''kâner' / درارآن 'کآنهر''' (We will die with you) * Sar dadí modaven '''kāvut' / سار دادیَ موداڤهن 'کاِڤؤت''' (She was in the city with you) * Sas xosadid '''kāvet' / ساس خوصادید 'کاِڤهت''' (He had spoken with himself) * Ast lèd sharpai-va shal vei taosâni l'dalna lāsâna '''kas' vei kar'' / است لهٔد شارپای'ڤا شال ڤهی تاوصآنی لعدالنا لاِصآنا کاس ڤهی کار (I saw the empty river and the stars of the night's sky with him and with her) * Ârir '''kasân' / آریر 'کاصآن''' (I will stay with them) * Alav '''karân' / الاڤ 'کارآن''' (I was reading with them) Ablative Pronoun The ablative pronouns indicate the pronoun as the origin of the movement away from something in relation to the subject. Like the comitative pronoun, the ablative pronoun will always remain after the verb, forcing an SVO order, even if it is related to an accusative pronoun that precedes the verb in a SOV order. The ablative pronouns, in relation to the nominative pronouns, differ by adding the letter V / ڤ at the end of the word, and some vowel changes in the pronouns. Exemples: * Mēso ventedí ar ehrâni '''asv' / مهِصو ڤهنتهدیَ ار هحرآنی 'اسڤ''' (The man won a gift from me) * Xorarí drai'i dasarna '''ahrāv' / خوراریَ درایعی داصارنا 'احراِڤ''' (He knew the gril's death from us) * Xashin mardi '''nav' / خاشین ماردی 'ناڤ''' (I feel the love from you) * Xed '''avāv' / خهد 'اڤاِڤ''' (He came from you) * Tarser xení '''vāv' / تارسهر خهنیَ 'ڤاِڤ''' (The hope came from himself) * Nerat bārz '''sasv' / نهرات باِرز 'ساسڤ''' (You will live far from he) * Dadân kōbèkven, pach haft zèvid '''sarv' / دادآن کوِبهٔکڤهن، پاچ حافت زهٔڤید 'سارڤ''' (We were in the house, but soon I left from she/it) * Fâq i ar ehrani '''sasvân' / فآق ی ار هحرآنی 'ساسڤآن''' (The table is a gift from they) * Ēshaq xení '''sarvân' / هِشاق خهنیَ 'سارڤآن''' (The perfume come from they) Possessive Pronouns Possessive pronouns indicate a relation of possession of an object to the pronoun. Possessive pronouns always precede the object they possess, and agree on gender and number with the object. In the first and second person (both singular and plural), the posessive pronoun agrees on gender and number with the object, there being two posessive pronouns (one masculine and one feminine) for each person and number, with each posessive pronoun (masculine or feminine) presenting singular and plural form. As in the nominative case, third-person pronouns have masculine and feminine forms, and third-person plural pronouns are the plural of third-person singular, third-person possessive pronouns, singular and plural, present four forms in singular, two masculine and two feminine, each of two forms agreeing with the two denari genders of the object. Pronouns also have plural forms. Then, in addition to agreeing on the gender and the number of the object, the third-person pronouns indicate the gender and the number of the possessor. Then, in the singular, there are four possessive pronouns in the third person singular and four in the third person plural. Reflexive possessive pronouns are only used when the possessor of the object has already been referred in the text, and can be either subject or direct / indirect object in the third person. In relation to nominative pronouns, possessive pronouns are more different in form than other pronouns that remain similar to nominative pronouns. But possessive pronouns retain some of the vowels and consonants of the nominative pronoun, with addition of vowels, substitution of consonants, use of S / س and R / ر to indicate the gender of the possessed object, and an N / ن inserted at the beginning or middle of the pronoun. The N / ن related to the '-na / نا-' declination of the genitive case. Exemples: * Ânra''' alèl dav defede'' / آنرا الهٔل داڤ دهفهده (My book was burned) * ''Ahnā́sân kōbèkân xâs den modaven'' / احناَِصآن کوِبهٔکآن خآس ین موداڤهن (Our houses aren't in the city) * ''Nas pish xâs xosarí ânra peshvari'' / ناس پیش خآس خوصاریَ آنرا پهشڤاری (Your child will not see my daughter) * ''Ànvas fâq dē pássasi shevisâna'' / آَنڤاس فآق دهِ پاَساصی شهڤیصآنا (Your table is full of food) * ''Psândadí '''návar kōbèki / پسآندادیَ ناَڤار کوِبهٔکی (He build his own house) * Visas i 'ásnas''' nervasi'' / ڤیصاس ی اَسناس نهرڤاصی (The child is his son) * ''Árnar aia dradí'' / اَرنار ایا درادیَ (Her mother died) * ''Asànasân emādân in alisi'' / ارآَناصآن هماَدآن ین الیصی (Their flowers are beautiful) * Qā̀tin '''arànas' ēshaqi'' / قآَِتین ارآَناس هِشاقی (I like their perfume) Causative Pronouns Causative pronouns indicates the pronouns as the agent of an action in the passive voice. Causative pronouns always come after the verb, forming an SVO order, being the object of the sentence. They accompany a verb in the passive voice, which acts on the subject. In relation to nominative pronouns, they are very similar, with small changes in the interior and the addition of the T / ت at the beginning of the pronoun.